Table of Contents
Parts of speech are like players on a team. They each have their own job to do, and they have to follow the rules.
Adjectives
Adjectives have many uses:
- possession (“my,” “your,” “his,” “her,” “its,” “our,” “your,” “their”)
- color (“green,” “red,” “sky blue pink,” etc.)
- numbers (“one,” “ten,” “five million,” etc.)
- sizes (“large,” “small,” “infinitesimal,” etc.)
- ages (“young,” “ancient,” “century-old,” etc.)
- and more
Examples:
- My favorite book as a young child was Green Eggs and Ham.
- (adjectives = “favorite,” “young,” “green”)
- The 28 days of February make it the shortest month of the entire year.
- (adjectives = “28,” “shortest,” “entire”)
- (subject = “days,” not “February,” so “make” matches the plural subject.)
- (“February” is the object of the preposition “of.”)
- Their four-year-old black cat raced to his food bowl.
- (adjectives = “their,” “four-year-old,” “black,” “his”)
- (when two or more words are used as a single adjective, they should be hyphenated together)
- (“food bowl” is a compound noun, composed of two nouns, where “food” describes “bowl.)
- (Some compound nouns are hyphenated, but others are not.)
- (Technically, nouns do not modify nouns, so we call this a compound noun.)
- (adjectives = “their,” “four-year-old,” “black,” “his”)
Adverbs
Adverbs commonly end in “-ly.”
Some very common ones do not: “very,” “often,” “still,” “already,” “somewhere,” “sometime,” “now” (and more).
Examples:
- The river flowed swiftly though the deeply flooded town.
- “swiftly,” modifying the verb “flowed”
- “deeply,” modifying the adjective “flooded”
- Very dedicated rescue squads bravely faced the dangerously raging waters.
- “very,” modifying the adjective “dedicated”
- “bravely,” modifying the verb “faced”
- “dangerously,” modifying the adjective “raging”
- “Tiptoe very slowly,” she advised her co-conspirator.
- “very,” modifying “slowly”
- “slowly,” modifying “tiptoe”
- The boy hid the box somewhere, but I can’t find it anywhere.
- “somewhere,” modifying verb “hid”
- “anywhere,” modifying verb “find”
Conjunctions
Think a highway junction. The prefix “con” means “with,” so it is a junction of clauses with each other.
Clauses may be sentences (independent clauses) in themselves, but with a conjunction, they become dependent upon the independent clause for completion.
Wikipedia has a more exhaustive list of conjunctions, divided into coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, conjunctions of time, and subordinating conjunctions. This article below offers information on coordinating conjunctions (often calls FANBOYS), correlative conjunctions, and subordinate conjunctions.
Coordinating conjunctions, sometimes called FANBOYS, require a comma to combine clauses.
Examples:
- Micah went to town, and Hannah went with him, for they needed to buy groceries, so they could eat their Thanksgiving dinner.
- (coordinating conjunctions = “and,” “for,” “so”)
- (each coordinating conjunction has a comma at the end of the clause before it.)
- Hannah didn’t have enough money, nor did Micah, so they stopped at the ATM, but it was out of order.
- (coordinating conjunctions = “nor,” “so,” “but”)
- (each coordinating conjunction has a comma at the end of the clause before it.)
A subordinate conjunction combines two independent clauses in such a way that one of them depends upon the other for it to be complete, creating a sentence with a dependent clause and an independent clause. They demote their clause so it cannot stand alone.
It subordinates its clause.
Subordinate conjunctions are words such as “although,” “when,” “whenever,” “however,” “if,” “though,” “even if,” “because,” unless,” since” and many more. Subordinating conjunctions show time, place, or cause and effect; or they indicate which clause is less important.
When the dependent clause (with the subordinate conjunction) follows the independent clause, no comma is needed between them..
If the dependent clause comes first, it should be separated from the independent clause with a comma.
Examples:
- Because they had a chicken in the freezer, they did not need to buy the turkey.
- (subordinating conjuction = “because”)
- dependent clause begins the sentence, so a comma is needed)
- They did not need to buy the turkey because they had a chicken in the freezer.
- (subordinating conjunction = “because”)
- (dependent clause follows the independent clause, so no comma)
- When they were driving home, they saw a flock of wild turkeys in a field.
- (subordinate conjunction = “when”)
- (dependent clause begins the sentence, so a comma is needed)
- They saw a flock of wild turkeys in a field when they were driving home.
- (subordinating conjunction = “when”)
- (dependendent clause follows the independent one, so no comma)
- Since Micah had his rifle, they went home for a full Thanksgiving dinner.
- (subordinating conjunction = “since”)
- (dependent clause begins the sentence, so a comma is needed)
- They went home for a full Thanksgiving dinner since Micah had his rifle.
- (subordinating conjunction = “since”)
- (dependent clause follows the independent one, requiring a comma)
To save words, when the subject is the same in both clauses, sometimes, as in the second example, “When they were driving home” can be reduced to “Driving home, they saw a flock of wild turkeys.”
(“cor” as a prefix means “with.” With several relatives, the conjunction lets you choose.)
Correlative conjunction = a pair of conjunctions that offers a choice: both … and, either … or, neither … nor, not only … but also, whether … or
Examples:
- Both Hannah and Micah worked at preparing the turkey, not only removing the feathers, but also cleaning its inside.
- (correlative conjunctions = “both … and,” “not only … but also”)
- (Notice the commas before “not only” and “but also.”)
- Neither the husband nor the wife like the gizzard, so they gave it to the dogs, whether or not they would eat it.
- (correlative conjunctions = “neither … nor,” “whether … or”)
Interjections
Interjections are best used in dialogue or informal writing rather than in narrative or non-fiction.
Some interjections are stronger than others. Spoken words and phrases like “um,” “well,” “you see” seem more to fill space or time. They are usually set off with commas in the sentence.
A little stronger interjection could end with a period. It depends upon the emotion involved.
“Ouch!” “Help!” “No way!” express strong emotion. They are usually separate sentences in themselves, often punctuated with exclamation marks.
“Really?” “Oh?” “Huh?” and others imply disbelief and end with question marks.
Examples:
- They, um, were not paying attention.
- Well, you see, I didn’t know what else to do.
- Yes. That’s what I want you to do.
- I don’t know. I never watched that movie.
- No, he couldn’t have done that.
- No! He couldn’t have done that!
- Wow! He threw it how far?
- What? She couldn’t have said that.
Nouns
Nouns serve as subjects (doers) or objects.
Examples:
- Old Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard to get her poor dog a bone;
- (nouns = “Mother Hubbard” [subject])
- (“cupboard” [object of preposition “to”])
- (“dog” [indirect object], “bone” [direct object])
- but when she got there, the cupboard was bare, and so the poor dog had none.
- (nouns = “cupboard” [subject])
- (“dog” [subject])
- An idea popped into her mind, but then the thought disappeared.
- (nouns = “idea” [subject])
- (“mind” [object of preposition “into”])
- (“thought” [subject])
Prepositions
Prepositions are followed by an object that completes the relationship with the noun or before before.
Examples:
- Beth drank all the milk she had in the bottle.
- (preposition = “in”, object = “bottle”)
- With a grandiose wave of her hand,the maid invited him to come inside.
- (preposition = “of,” object = “hand”)
For an extensive list of prepositions, see this article in Wikipedia.
Or check out the children’s book, Rosie’s Walk by Pat Hutchins from your library or from BarnesandNoble.com.
Examples:
- The rabbit ran in the box.
- The rabbit ran inside the box.
- The rabbit ran into the box.
- The rabbit ran above the box.
- The rabbit ran under the box.
- The rabbit ran behind the box.
- The rabbit ran to the box.
- The rabbit ran between the box and the chair.
- The rabbit ran out of the box.
- The rabbit ran after the box (it had legs).
- The rabbit ran beside the box.
- The rabbit ran from the box.
- The rabbit ran … add your own.
Some prepositions are also adverbs.
Examples:
- The cat jumped off the table.
- preposition = “off”
- object = “table”
- The airplane took off.
- adverb = “off”
- They won’t leave until after the game.
- preposition = “after”
- object = “game
- Jack fell down and broke his crown, and Jill came tumbling after.
- adverbs = “down” and “after”
A preposition at the end of a sentence is not illegal and has become much more common. Neither The Chicago Manual of Style nor The AP Stylebook mention what used to be considered a grammar crime, which implies to me that they have no objections to it.
Because some prepositions serve both purposes and because common English has created verbal phrases which combine a verb and an adverb (which may also appear to be a preposition), the rule about not ending a sentence with a preposition is not enforced.
Examples:
- “What are you talking about?”
- “About what are you talking?” sounds stuffy.
- “She can never get her idea across.”
- “She can never get across her idea” sounds like “across a bridge”.
But
- “
Where are they at?”- “at” is implied in the “where.” The appropriate question is “Where are they?”
Where are they going to?- “to” is implied in the “where”. The appropriate question is “Where are they going?”
In general, it is better to avoid ending a sentence with a preposition in formal writing, but only if the sentence reads easily.
Whether or not Winston Churchill said it, this phrase precedes his time as prime minister. “That is foolish nonsense up with which I will not put.” (“Put up with” is considered a verb phrase. Most readers will move right on past it with no hesitation.)
Pronouns
Pronouns have many jobs, depending upon their role in the sentence.
As you will see, some pronouns serve double or triple duty.
Subject pronouns replace the noun as a subject.
- “I” refers to the speaker
- “you” (singular) refers to a single listener
- “he” is a third individual, male
- “she” is a third individual, female
- “it” is a single non-person, often used for animals
- “we” refers to the speaker and others involved
- “you” (plural) indicates more than one listener
- “they” are other individuals, not including the speaker or the listener(s)
Object pronouns replace nouns for direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of a preposition.
- direct objects have the action done on them
- indirect objects are the receivers of the direct object (“to” or “for” the action is done)
- objects of prepositions follow prepositions, which relate them to what comes before)
Object pronouns should not be used as subjects, except in dialectal dialogue.
- “me” refers to the speaker
- “you” (singular) refers to a single listener
- “him” is a third individual, male
- “her” is a third individual, female
- “it” is a single non-person, often used for animals
- “us” refers to the speaker and others involved
- “you” (plural) indicates more than one listener
- “them” are other individuals, not including the speaker or the listener(s)
Possessive adjectives do not replace the noun itself. Instead, they come before it to identify ownership.
Possessive pronouns replace the noun and its modifiers.
- “mine” refers to the speaker
- “yours” (singular) refers to a single listener
- “his” is a third individual, male
- “hers” is a third individual, female
- “its” is a single non-person, often used for animals
- “ours” refers to the speaker and others involved
- “yours” (plural) indicates more than one listener
- “theirs” are other individuals, not including the speaker or the listener(s)
The purpose of the reflexive pronoun is to reflect the action back onto the subject or object.
When they are used for emphasis, they are considered “intensive.”
Pairings:
- “I … myself” refers to the speaker
- “you … yourself” (singular) refers to a single listener
- “he … himself” is a third individual, male
- “she … herself” is a third individual, female
- “it … itself” is a single non-person, often used for animals
- “we … ourselves” refers to the speaker and others involved
- “you … yourselves” (plural) indicates more than one listener
- “they … themselves” are other individuals, not including the speaker or the listener(s)
As could be expected, relative pronouns relate one clause to another, with one difference. The subject of the dependent (subordinate) clause is one of these pronouns rather than a “normal” subject (noun or pronoun).
Relative clauses, because they are dependent clauses, do not contain a complete thought.
Relative pronouns do not match up with subject pronouns.
- that
- which
- whichever
- what
- whatever
- who
- whom
- whoever
- whomever
- whosever
Also functioning as relative pronouns:
- where
- wherever
- when
- whenever
The pronouns ending in “-ever” do not refer to a specific individual.
The list of interrogative pronouns is short, only five.
- “who” is used to ask about people, used as a subject
- “whom” is for grammarians (people), used as an object
- “whose” asks about possession for people
- “what” can refer to people or objects
- “which” offers a choice of people or objects
Four words serve as demonstrative pronouns.
- “this” points to a single item or person nearby
- “these” indicates more than one item or person nearby
- “that” points to a single item farther away
- “those” indicates more than one item or person farther away
No, there is no exact distance to differentiate between them. It’s a personal thing, often involving gesturing.
Indefinite pronouns generalize, making sweeping statements.
A list of a few of many indefinite pronouns:
- any
- anyone
- anything
- some
- someone
- somebody
- something
- each
- all
- many
- none
- no one
- nobody
- nothing
- every
- everyone
- everybody
- everything
- few
- several
- She gave me a suit for our dance.
- (subject pronoun = “she”)
- (indirect object pronoun = “me”)
- (possessive pronoun = “our”)
- (word order = subject pronoun, verb, indirect object, indefinite article, direct object, preposition, possessive pronoun, object of preposition)
- That was yours, but now it is mine.
- (demonstrative pronoun as subject = “that”
- (possessive pronoun = “yours”)
- (subject pronoun = “it”)
- (possessive pronoun = “mine”)
- (word order = demonstrative pronoun, linking verb, possessive pronoun, coordinating conjunction, adverb, subject pronoun, linking verb, possessive pronoun)
- He handed it to her.
- (subject pronoun = “he”)
- (direct object pronoun = “it”)
- (object of preposition = “her”)
- (word order = subject pronoun, verb, direct object, preposition, object of preposition)
- Carlos told himself that anyone could do it.
- (reflexive pronoun = “himself”)
- (indefinite pronoun = “anyone”)
- (direct object = “it”)
- (word order = subject [proper noun], verb, reflexive pronoun, conjunction, indefinite pronoun, helping verb, verb, object pronoun)
Verbs
Action means that something is happening. It may be in the present, in the past, or in the future.
Click here for tenses with explanations and common irregular verb forms.
Examples:
- The dog caught the Frisbee in mid-air.
- (subject = doer = “dog,” verb = “caught”)
- I don’t like liver and onions.
- (subject = doer = “I,” verb = “do … like”)
- The reliable oven baked the pumpkin pie at 350 degrees for one hour.
- (subject = doer = “oven,” verb = “baked”)
- Would you please pack the car for our trip?
- (subject = doer = “you,” verb = “would … pack”)
The verb usually includes a form of “be.”
Examples:
- The car will be packed for our trip in ten minutes.
- (subject = “car,” someone [not identified] is packing it for the trip)
- (verb = “will be packed”)
- I was given ten minutes to pack the car.
- (subject = “I”, someone [not identified] gave me ten minutes to pack the car)
- (verb = “was given”)
- The Frisbee has been caught by the dog in mid-air.
- (subject = Frisbee)
- (the catcher is the dog, the object of the preposition “by”)
- (verb = “has been caught”)
State of being = verbs like “to be,” “to seem,” “to appear” create an equal sign (“=”) between the subject and what describes the subject on the other side of the “=”)
(These verbs are also called “linking verbs,” because they link the two sides together.)
Examples:
- Roses are red; violets are blue. Sugar is sweet, and so are you.
- (subjects = “roses,” “violets,” sugar,” and “you”; state of being verbs = “are,” “are,” “is,” “are”)
- That answer seems correct, but I question its accuracy.
- (subjects = “answer,” “I;” state of being verb = “seems,” active verb = “question”)
- After running the marathon, he didn’t appear tired.
- (subject = “he,” verb = “did … appear”; “after running the marathon” is a prepositional phrase)
Credit: Photo by Joshua Allwood on Unsplash